Japanese Business Administration
In recent decades, the study on the transformation of gender relations has become relevant in all parts of the world. This process has similarities in many countries but proceeds differently in each country and region, depending on a number of external and internal factors. In certain societies, the transformation of gender relations is caused by the development of economic potential and democratization. It is carried out under conditions of social and cultural interactions: transfer and implementation of the values of one society to another. Socio-cultural cooperation between the countries of the East and West is becoming closer. In modern conditions, these interactions are carried out simultaneously with cultural globalization. Interaction of cultures in the modern world is influenced by globalization, which is a unique phenomenon that characterizes the development of mankind in the post-industrial period. The socio-cultural system is defined as a genetic core of civilization. It is believed that civilization exists until it saves this core that consists of cultural meanings, values, and norms. Globalization processes bring changes to all spheres of society, transforming the socio-cultural space, which is limited by the scopes of local civilization. Cultural globalization is closely associated with a trend towards unification, which threatens with the disappearance of national cultural elements and their replacement by elements of the Western mass culture. Due to the spread of mass culture, there are changes in the system of values and way of life of Eastern societies as the Western popular culture is able to neutralize the cultural specificity of Oriental elements of cultural and civilizational entities. As a response to global challenges, Japan transforms its cultural core, maintaining its integrity and continuity with past experience and traditions of spiritual life. While preserving external similarity, borrowed ideas that include gender ideas and values penetrate Japan's socio-cultural space and undergo changes. The Japanese create their own values, which are filled with fundamentally new content and are products of synthesis of ‘their’ and ‘foreign’. As a result of globalization, today, Japanese companies change their management with a primary focus on female employees in the workplace.
Japan in Conditions of Globalization
In Japan, storing cultural values is accompanied by their transformation in accordance with the changing conditions of life and response to external calls. Japan stands in the world arena not only as a state that accepts foreign cultural influences. This country is subject to cultural globalization as it transforms borrowed values and then translates them into other Asian countries. There was a synthesis of old and new: Western cultural elements were filled with new content when they were included in the socio-cultural space of Japan.
The distribution of the values of the Western culture in the mass consciousness is needed for a successful upgrading. The popularization of the ideas and values from the West creates the basis for their further assimilation and integration into the Japanese space culture.
The process of the spread of Western ideas and values has been and remains manageable. The main subject of control in the state. From the very first contact with the Europeans, the Japanese government has taken measures to manage the penetration of Western ideas and values into the Japanese society. The internal transformation of Japanese society was based on borrowing Western systems and technologies. The activities of the state remain a crucial factor in modernizing the spheres of Japanese society. The system of gender relations is not an exception.
Transformation of Gender Relations
The transformation of gender relations on the basis of Western values is determined not only by external influences. It is founded on economic (the change in the structure of employment), political (integration into the international processes of democratization and achievement of equality at all levels), and social processes (the need to address domestic violence, declining birth rates, and aging of the population). At the same time, due to globalization, the expansion of Western ideas, values, and norms of behavior plays an important role in the development of Japan.
The activities of the state in the modernization of gender relations are primarily aimed at eliminating discrimination against women. The state does not only take action to eliminate gender asymmetry but also tries to regulate the transition process and assimilation of Western ideas and values, contributing to the development of its own, not borrowed, ideas about gender equality (Kambayashi, 2015).
The expression ‘good wife and wise mother’ was often applied to women in the past. It is not so common today, but this assumption is firmly rooted in the subconsciousness of the Japanese. During the Edo period, the education of women was supposed to train them to be good wives, who could do housework and give birth to children. The first changes of the requirements of society towards women were made in the Meiji era with the introduction of compulsory universal education. In this period, being a good wife meant becoming a support for the husband, while in the Edo period, women had to simply obey the husband. The education system in the Meiji era made an emphasis on educating girls as boys, as it was believed that they would become mothers and have a decisive impact on the education of their children. In addition, they could become good teachers. As a result, women played a prominent role among the well-educated and well-mannered Japanese. Today, it is widely believed that a woman's education has become one of the most important factors in the rapid industrialization of Japan (Krajewski & Slatten, 2013, p.34).
Traditional Role of Japanese Women in Business
Business culture in Japan is similar to the Chinese one. In Japan, as in China, it is forbidden to behave erratically, express opinions directly and categorically. Particularly strict morality is related to Japanese women. They have to obey their husbands in everything, be polite and modest. The basis of the Japanese business culture is the principle of rigid subordination. As in China, the status of a person is determined by their age, rank, and gender. In Japanese firms, most women work as secretaries (Futagami & Helms, 2009, p.73). Consequently, the Japanese women who work in the business are automatically perceived as secretaries. However, their attitude toward foreign women as potential partners is not always negative.
The absence of women in higher echelons of business is a reflection of the problems that Japan faces with regard to the issue of increasing the number of female managers. This is the result of the weak participation of women in the labor force of the country, which is known for its long working hours, lack of childcare, and the culture in which the role of women in the workplace is often limited. Women are sitting at home because of the fact that there are no sufficient childcare facilities (Kambayashi, 2015). Women have to bear a heavy load as the country has few support structures to enable them to continue work after childbirth.
In Japan, men and women start their careers by having the smallest difference in wages. However, over time, this difference increases. The difference in salary between men and women in Japan is explained by the system of recruitment that large corporations adopt. There, employees are divided into career and non-career groups (Krajewski & Slatten, 2013, p.36). People in the career group have a chance to advance and become managers, but those who are in the non-career group often work as helpers.
The corporate culture of Japan usually appreciates the seniority system and willingness to work overtime. This increases the difference in wages and leads to a reduction in the proportion of female managers. Japanese corporations have a custom: promoting careers of those who know the company. These are people who have worked there for a long time and have visited various positions in different departments and divisions. A woman is often dismissed, without having to try herself in various capacities.
Contemporary Changes in Management
The process of globalization, which has covered almost all countries, allows making general culture, adopting common universal values. Today, the traditionally male Japanese society is undergoing serious changes: women are actively participating in the labor process, social, political, and economic life, where previously leading positions were occupied only by men. Globalization plays an important role in transforming the employment system, which is explained by the fact that “foreign companies with operations in Japan are providing more opportunities for Japanese women” (Krajewski & Slatten, 2013, p. 38). Aronsson (2015) states that there is an increase in the number of female managers as well as their educational achievements. “In the past 50 years, the number of women in the Japanese workforce has increased. In 1955, 5.3 million women were in the Japanese workforce; in 1990, 18.3 million; and in 2009, 27.7 million” (Krajewski & Slatten, 2013, p. 37). Japanese companies provide a new management style that primarily focuses on female workers. Thus, the efforts of companies include the promotion of new opportunities such as part-time employment, working from home, and flexible hours. Part-time work represents an extension of a career path for women (Broadbent, 2003). According to this policy, women received more opportunities to succeed in business as they receive support from their companies.
Conclusion
In the modern world, the international community seeks to achieve not only the advancement of women’s position but also the equality of women and men in all spheres of social life (gender equality). In Japan, as elsewhere, to be a man or a woman means not only a biological reality of belonging to a particular gender. It is realized through a combination of social, political, cultural, mental, and physical processes. Sex differences are reflected in the speech, style of clothing, choice of jobs, the style of behavior, etc. Today, Japanese women are concerned with the expectations that are placed upon them by society, because many Japanese women are forced to engage themselves in work and household chores. They are required to be good wives and reasonable mothers to the same extent as to succeed in a business career. Nevertheless, speaking about the gender politics of Japan in the period from the end of the 20th century – beginning of the 21st century, it is impossible not to notice significant changes that are taking place in the minds of men and women. There is a departure from traditional, patriarchal norms and superiority in the values of individualism and personal life. There is a unique combination of Japanese mentality with the introduction of elements of Western culture. The labor market has undergone crucial changes in recent years because of the globalized world. Women received new opportunities in business. Due to globalization, companies provide changes in their management with a primary focus on women, which provide part-time employment, flexible hours, and working at home. As a result, there are new possibilities for female employees to compound their traditional roles as housewives and mothers with their work. Thus, due to globalization, Japanese women have received opportunities to participate in business life and even get carrier promotions.
